| 22) George SM (2008) | The National Institutes of Health-AARP Diet and Health Study. | 195,229 women and 288,109 men aged 50-71.
(USA) | 1995-2003 | 15,792 women, and 35,071 men | All cancer incidence | Vegetables (excluding potatoes) |
| Women: | Men: |
RR = 1.04 (0.98-1.09; P = 0.084) for the highest vs lowest quintile of consumption.
Amount specific data (range of intake [cup equivalents/1000 kcal]):
0-0.56: RR = 1.
0.56-0.79: RR = 1.01 (0.96-1.06).
0.79-1.04: RR = 1.02 (0.97-1.07).
1.04-1.43: RR = 1.03 (0.98-1.09).
1.43-4.38: RR = 1.04 (0.98-1.09).
|
RR = 0.94 (0.91-0.97; P = 0.004) for the highest vs lowest quintile of consumption.
Amount specific data (range of intake [cup equivalents/1000 kcal]):
0.06-0.44: RR = 1.
0.44-0.61: RR = 0.97 (0.94-1.00).
0.61-0.81: RR = 0.96 (0.93-0.99).
0.81-1.10: RR = 0.98 (0.94-1.01).
1.10-3.25: RR = 0.94 (0.91-0.97).
Never smokers:
When the analysis was restricted to never-smokers, the inverse relation was attenuated and no longer significant: RR = 0.97 (0.91-1.04; P = 0.474).
|
1 cup = 237 mL. One cup is 1 cup of raw/cooked vegetable, 1 cup of 100% juice, or 2 cups of raw leafy greens.Age, smoking (smoking status, time since quitting, and smoking dose), energy intake, BMI, alcohol, physical activity, education , race, marital status, family history, menopausal hormone therapy (women), and fruit intake. |
| 20) Takachi R. (2007) | The Japan Public Health Center-based Prospective Study (JPHC). | 77,891 subjects (35,909 men 41,982 and women) aged 45-74.
(Japan) | 5.8
(1995-1998 to 2002) | 3,230 cancer (636 gastric, 598 colorectal, 397 lung, 233 breast, 193 liver, 1,173 other) | Risk of cancer | Vegetables (defined as: 6 pickled vegetables [Chinese radishes, green leafy vegetables, plums, Chinese cabbage, cucumbers, and eggplant], 7 cruciferous vegetables [cabbage, Chinese radishes, komatsuna, broccoli, Chinese cabbage, leaf mustard, and chard or Swiss chard], 6 green leafy vegetables [spinach, Chinese chives, garland chrysanthemums, chingensai, mugwort, and green pepper], 4 yellow vegetables [carrots, tomatoes, pumpkins, and tomato juice], and 7 other vegetables [onions, cucumbers, bean sprouts, snap beans, lettuce, bitter gourds, and loofah]) |
Cancer risk stratified by gender
| Men & Women | Men | Women |
HR = 0.94 (0.84-1.05; P = 0.16) for the highest vs lowest quartile of consumption (Not defined).
Amount specific data (quartiles):
Q1: HR = 1.
Q2: HR = 1.01 (0.91-1.11).
Q3: HR = 0.91 (0.82-1.02).
Q4: HR = 0.94 (0.84-1.05).
HR for the highest vs lowest decile of consumption:
HR = 1.02 (0.85-1.21; P = 0.32). |
HR = 0.95 (0.82-1.10; P = 0.38) for the highest vs lowest quartile of consumption (Not defined).
Amount specific data (quartiles):
Q1: HR = 1.
Q2: HR = 0.94 (0.84-1.07).
Q3: HR = 0.91 (0.80-1.04).
Q4: HR = 0.95 (0.82-1.10). |
HR = 0.94 (0.78-1.12; P = 0.19) for the highest vs lowest quartile of consumption (Not defined).
Amount specific data (quartiles):
Q1: HR = 1.
Q2: HR = 1.07 (0.89-1.30).
Q3: HR = 0.89 (0.74-1.08).
Q4: HR = 0.94 (0.78-1.12). |
Cancer risk stratified by smoking status
| Ever smoker | Nonsmoker |
HR = 0.94 (0.80-1.11; P = 0.36) for the highest vs lowest quartile of consumption (Not defined).
Amount specific data (quartiles):
Q1: HR = 1.
Q2: HR = 0.92 (0.80-1.05).
Q3: HR = 0.87 (0.75-1.01).
Q4: HR = 0.94 (0.80-1.11). |
HR = 0.97 (0.83-1.13; P = 0.26) for the highest vs lowest quartile of consumption (Not defined).
Amount specific data (quartiles):
Q1: HR = 1.
Q2: HR = 1.10 (0.95-1.29).
Q3: HR = 0.96 (0.82-1.12).
Q4: HR = 0.97 (0.83-1.13). |
Stratified analyses by cohort (cohort I or II), BMI, age, and alcohol intake (< 150 vs > or = 150 g ethanol/wk) showed similar results.age, public health center area, BMI, physical activity, smoking, alcohol, energy, screening examination, medication, and daily vitamin supplement use. |
| 18) Benetou V. (2008) | The Greek segment of the EPIC Study. | 25,623 subjects (10,582 men, and 15,041 women).
(Greece) | 7.9
(1994-99 to 2007) | 851
(421 men, and 430 women) | Total cancer risk (excluding nonmelanoma skin cancer) | Vegetables (not defined) | HR = 0.96 (0.88-1.05; No P-value) for an increment of 230 g/day. | Stratified by sex. Adjusted for age, years of schooling, smoking status, BMI, height, physical activity, ethanol intake, supplement use, and total energy intake. |
| 18) Benetou V. (2008) | The Greek EPIC Cohort Study. | 25,623 participants (10,582 men, and 15,031 women). | 7.9 | 851
(421 men, and
430 women) | Total cancer incidence (excluding nonmelanoma skin cancer) | Vegetables including legumes (not defined) |
| Men & Women | Men | Women |
HR = 0.83 (0.64-1.07) for the highest vs lowest quintile of consumption.
Amount specific data (quintiles. No amounts specified):
Q1: HR = 1.
Q2: HR = 0.90 (0.73-1.11).
Q3: HR = 0.93 (0.75-1.16).
Q4: HR = 0.82 (0.65-1.04).
Q5: HR = 0.83 (0.64-1.07).
|
HR = 0.98 (0.68-1.41) for the highest vs lowest quintile of consumption.
Amount specific data (quintile medians in g/day):
344: HR = 1.
464: HR = 1.11 (0.83-1.49).
555: HR = 0.99 (0.72-1.36).
656: HR = 0.92 (0.66-1.29).
855: HR = 0.98 (0.68-1.41).
|
HR = 0.64 (0.44-0.93) for the highest vs lowest quintile of consumption.
Amount specific data (quintile medians in g/day):
301: HR = 1.
414: HR = 0.70 (0.52-0.94).
502: HR = 0.85 (0.63-1.14).
607: HR = 0.69 (0.49-0.95).
801: HR = 0.64 (0.44-0.93).
|
There was no evidence that the association between vegetable and/or fruits and cancer occurrence is different among dietary supplement (not defined) users and nonusers - if anything, the inverse association was slightly more evident among the users (data not shown).
Intake of dietary supplements is not uncommon among women, but is rather limited among men.Age, formal education, smoking status, BMI, height, physical activity, alcohol intake, supplement intake, and total daily energy intake. Fruits and vegetables are mutually adjusted for. |
| 18) Olsen A. (2005) | The Danish Diet, Cancer and Health Study (= part of the EPIC Cohort). | 29,068 women and 26,492 men. (Denmark) | ? | 1,844 women (1,456 users, 388 nonusers of supplements) and
1,519 men (951 users, 568 nonusers of supplements) | Total cancer risk | Vegetables (not defined) |
RRs are for an increment of 100 g/day.
| Women | Men |
All: RR = 0.99 (0.95-1.04; No P-value).
Users of dietary supplements: RR = 1.02 (0.96-1.07; No P-value).
Non-users of dietary supplements: RR = 0.90 (0.80-1.01; No P-value). | All: RR = 0.91 (0.86-0.97; No P-value).
Users of dietary supplements: RR = 0.93 (0.86-1.01; No P-value).
Non-users of dietary supplements: RR = 0.87 (0.78-0.97; No P-value). |
Body mass index, alcohol intake, smoking, and hormone replacement therapy. |
| 15) Jansen MC. (2004) | The Zutphen Elderly Study
(Part of The Seven Countries Study). | 730 men aged 65-84.
(The Netherlands) | 10
(1985-1995) | 138 | Total cancer risk | Vegetables (not defined, 27 items excluding potatoes) |
| Amount | Variety |
RR = 0.83 (0.54-1.25; P = 0.36) for the highest vs lowest tertile of consumption.
Amount specific data (g/d):
< 150: RR = 1.
150-200: RR = 0.87 (0.58-1.29).
> 200: RR = 0.83 (0.54-1.25). |
RR = 0.64 (0.43-0.95; P = 0.02) for the highest vs lowest tertile of variety in vegetable intake..
Tertiles of variety (Number of types):
≤ 15: RR = 1.
16-18: RR = 0.61 (0.40-0.95).
19-27: RR = 0.64 (0.43-0.95). |
Age, smoking-status, pack-years of cigarette smoking, total energy intake, physical activity, BMI, alcohol intake, fruit intake, and vegetable intake when variety studied. |
| 13) Frobisher C. (2007) | The Boyd Orr Cohort. | A reproducibility study using data from 151 families in the Carnegie Survey of Diet and Health.
Background: Data from the original study came from 1,352 families (4,999 children) in the Carnegie Survey of Diet and Health (86.6% of these children were traced as adults and form the Boyd Orr cohort).
(England & Scotland) | No data shown. | No data shown. | Total cancer incidence | Vegetables (not defined) |
(ORs adjusted for measurement errors):
| Using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) | By regression calibration |
| OR = 1.09 (0.88-1.31; No P-value) | OR = 1.10 (0.89-1.35; No P-value) |
ORs are for a 40 g/day increase in intake.
Not defined. But probably -->
Using ICCs: age, sex, energy intake, household food expenditure, Townsend score, season, district and social class.
Using regression calibration: Age, sex, district of residence, season and Townsend score of district of last posting. This model takes account of the measurement errors in the estimation of the energy intakes and vegetable intakes and also of the measurement errors in the confounder, household food expenditure. |
| 13) Maynard M. (2003) | The Boyd Orr Cohort. | 3.878 children -mean age 8 years- (1.959 women/1.919 men). (England/Scotland) | > 60 years (1937-39 to 2000) | 251 women, and 232 men. | Total cancer incidence | Vegetables (Not defined. Excluding potatoes) |
OR = 1.34 (0.93-1.93; P = 0.27) for the highest vs lowest quartile of consumption.
Amount specific data (mean intake in g/day):
23.1: OR = 1.
47.3: OR = 1.17 (0.84-1.64).
68.5: OR = 0.95 (0.66-1.34).
115.2: OR = 1.34 (0.93-1.93).
| Intra-family clustering. Age, sex, energy, food expenditure, Townsend score, season, and district. |
| 11) Hung HC. (2004) | The Nurses' Health Study
&
The Health Professionals' Follow-up Study. | 71,910 women (aged 30-55) and
37,725 men (aged 40-75).
(USA) | 14
(1984-1998)
(women), and
12
(1986-1998)
(men) | 6584? women, and
2500? men.
3577 never smokers, 3945 past smokers, and 1694 current smokers.
3128 non-vitamin supplement users, and 3948 multivitamin supplement users. | All cancer risk (excluding nonmelanoma skin cancer, in situ breast cancer, and organ-confined prostate cancer) | All vegetables (tomatoes, tomato sauce, string beans, broccoli, cabbage or coleslaw, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, carrots, corn, peas or lima beans, mixed vegetables, yellow [winter] squash, eggplant, zucchini, or other summer squash, yams or sweet potatoes, spinach, kale, mustard, or chard greens, iceberg or head lettuce, romaine or leaf lettuce, celery, mushrooms, beets, alfalfa sprouts, garlic, green or chili peppers, potatoes, artichokes, asparagus, avocado, bean sprouts, chicory, chili peppers, daikon radish, endive, escarole, jerusalem artichokes, turnips, kohlrabi, leeks, okra, oriental vegetables, parsley, parsnips, peapods, radishes, rhubarb, rutabagas, scallions, and water chestnuts) |
Stratified by sex:
| Men + women | Men | Women |
| RR = 0.99 (0.95-1.04; No P-value). | RR = 0.99 (No 95% CI; No P-value). | RR = 0.99 (No 95% CI; No P-value). |
Stratified by smoking status (men and women combined):
| Never | Past | Current |
| RR = 1.02 (0.94-1.10; No P-value). | RR = 1.01 (0.94-1.08; No P-value). | RR = 0.94 (0.84-1.05; No P-value). |
Stratified by multivitamin use (men and women combined):
| Non-vitamin use | Multivitamin use |
RR = 0.93 (0.85-1.02; No P-value).
There was a stronger inverse association of cancer with all vegetable intake among non-vitamin users than among multivitamin users. | RR = 1.01 (0.94-1.09; No P-value). |
All RRs are for an increment of 3 servings/day.Total calorie intake, age, smoking status, alcohol use, body mass index, multivitamin and vitamin E supplement use, physical activity, family history of myocardial infarction, family history of colon cancer, personal history of hypertension, personal history of hypercholesterolemia, personal history of diabetes, and (for women only) family history of breast cancer, menopausal status, and use of hormone replacement therapy. |
| 11) McCullough ML. (2000) | The Health Professionals Follow-up Study. | 38,622 men aged 40-75.
(USA) | 8
(1986-1994) | 1,661? | Total cancer risk (all cancers except nonaggressive prostate cancer (< stage C and < grade 7) and nonmelanoma skin cancer) | Vegetables (Not defined, including potatoes) | Not associated with risk (no data shown).
Highest (10 points) vs lowest tertile (0 points) = 4.2-5 vs 0 servings/d respectively. | Each component of the healthy food index was added individually into the multivariate model, adjusting for age, smoking, body mass index, alcohol intake, physical activity, total energy intake, and time period. |
| 9) Strandhagen E. (2000) | The Study Of Men Born In 1913. | 730 men aged 54.
(Sweden) | 26
(1967-1993) | 226 | Cancer disease | Vegetables (not defined) | No significant association was found for men in the highest vs lowest quartile of consumption (6-7 vs 0-1 times/wk) (No data shown). | No data shown. |
| 7) Knekt P. (1997) | The Finnish Mobile Clinic Health Examination Survey Cohort. | 9,959 men and women aged 15-99.
(Finland) | 24
(1967-1991) | 997? | All cancer risk | Vegetables other than onions | RR = 0.93 (0.74-1.17; No P-value) for the highest vs lowest quartile of consumption (not defined).
(For onions, also no association was found: RR = 1.02 (0.84-1.25; No P-value) | Sex, age, geographic area, occupation, smoking, BMI, and intakes of energy, vitamin C, vitamin E, beta carotene, fiber, saturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and cholesterol. |
| 2) Shibata A. (1992) | The Leisure World Study. | 11,580 residents of a retirement community.
(USA) | 1981-1989 | 1,335 (645 men, 690 women) | All cancer risk | Vegetables (Leafy green lettuce [Romaine, Boston, bibb, butterhead, endive, escarole, salad bowl, red leafy lettuce], other leafy greens [spinach, chard, beet greens, turnip greens, mustard greens, collards, kale, dandelion greens], iceberg or head lettuce, cabbage [incude sauerkraut and coleslaw], white potatoes or turnips, sweet potatoes, yams, pumpkin [including in pie or soup], carrots, winter squash [butternut, hubbard, acorn squash [including in pie or soup], summer squash [zucchini, yellow crookneck, yellow straightneck, cocozelle, scallop squash, broccoli, tomatoes [fresh or cooked, including tomatoes in a sauce such as spaghetti or tomato soup], green peas [including snow peas and Chines pea pods], green beans or string beans, lima beans or blackeye beans, corn, asparagus, sweet green peppers, sweet red peppers, hot red chili peppers [including hot pepper sauce, chili powder, cayenne pepper, tobasco sauce, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower) |
| Men | Women |
RR = 1.05 (0.89-1.27; No P-value) for the highest vs lowest tertile of consumption.
Amount specific data (servings/day):
< 3.0: RR = 1.
3.0-< 4.5: RR = 1.09 (0.90-1.32).
≥ 4.5: RR = 1.05 (0.89-1.27). |
RR = 0.84 (0.70-1.01; No P-value) for the highest vs lowest tertile of consumption.
Amount specific data (servings/day):
< 3.2: RR = 1.
3.2-< 4.8: RR = 0.93 (0.78-1.11).
≥ 4.8: RR = 0.84 (0.70-1.01). |
Age and smoking.
Adjustment for BMI or physical activity did not materially alter the results (data not shown). |
Prospective studies of total vegetables and total cancer mortality:
| Author | Cohort name | Subjects | Years of follow-up | Cases | End point | Consumption of | Relative Risk (RR) | Adjustments |
| 18) Nöthlings U (2008) | The EPIC Study. | 10,449 participants - aged 35 to 70- with self-reported diabetes mellitus.
(10 European Countries) | 9
(1992-2000 to 2007) | 319? | Cancer mortality | Vegetables (not defined) | No significant association: RR = 1.09 (0.87-1.39) for an increase of 80 g/d. | Stratified on age.
Adusted for sex, smoking status, self-reported heart attack at baseline, self-reported hypertension at baseline, self-reported cancer at baseline, waist-to-hip ratio, insulin treatment, age at diabetes diagnosis, energy intake, alcohol intake. |
| 13) Frobisher C. (2007) | The Boyd Orr Cohort. | A reproducibility study using data from 151 families in the Carnegie Survey of Diet and Health.
Background: Data from the original study came from 1,352 families (4,999 children) in the Carnegie Survey of Diet and Health (86.6% of these children were traced as adults and form the Boyd Orr cohort).
(England & Scotland) | No data shown. | No data shown. | Total cancer mortality | Vegetables (not defined) |
(ORs adjusted for measurement errors):
| Using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) | By regression calibration |
| OR = 0.98 (0.75-1.24; No P-value) | OR = 1.02 (0.79-1.30; No P-value) |
ORs are for a 40 g/day increase in intake.
Not defined. But probably -->
Using ICCs: age, sex, energy intake, household food expenditure, Townsend score, season, district and social class.
Using regression calibration: Age, sex, district of residence, season and Townsend score of district of last posting. This model takes account of the measurement errors in the estimation of the energy intakes and vegetable intakes and also of the measurement errors in the confounder, household food expenditure. |
| 13) Maynard M. (2003) | The Boyd Orr Cohort. | 3.878 children -mean age 8 years- (1.959 women/1.919 men). (England/Scotland) | > 60 years (1937-39 to 2000) | 158 women, and 175 men | Total cancer mortality | Vegetables (Not defined. Excluding potatoes) |
OR = 1.14 (0.75-1.72; P = 0.92) for the highest vs lowest quartile of consumption.
Amount specific data (mean intake in g/day):
23.1: OR = 1.
47.3: OR = 1.18 (0.81-1.71).
68.5: OR = 0.90 (0.61-1.34).
115.2: OR = 1.14 (0.75-1.72).
| Intra-family clustering. Age, sex, energy, food expenditure, Townsend score, season, and district. |
| 11) Hung HC. (2004) | The Nurses' Health Study
&
The Health Professionals' Follow-up Study. | 71,910 women (aged 30-55) and
37,725 men (aged 40-75).
(USA) | 14
(1984-1998)
(women), and
12
(1986-1998)
(men) | No data shown. | All cancer mortality | All vegetables (tomatoes, tomato sauce, string beans, broccoli, cabbage or coleslaw, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, carrots, corn, peas or lima beans, mixed vegetables, yellow [winter] squash, eggplant, zucchini, or other summer squash, yams or sweet potatoes, spinach, kale, mustard, or chard greens, iceberg or head lettuce, romaine or leaf lettuce, celery, mushrooms, beets, alfalfa sprouts, garlic, green or chili peppers, potatoes, artichokes, asparagus, avocado, bean sprouts, chicory, chili peppers, daikon radish, endive, escarole, jerusalem artichokes, turnips, kohlrabi, leeks, okra, oriental vegetables, parsley, parsnips, peapods, radishes, rhubarb, rutabagas, scallions, and water chestnuts) | No association was found (no data shown). | Total calorie intake, age, smoking status, alcohol use, body mass index, multivitamin and vitamin E supplement use, physical activity, family history of myocardial infarction, family history of colon cancer, personal history of hypertension, personal history of hypercholesterolemia, personal history of diabetes, and (for women only) family history of breast cancer, menopausal status, and use of hormone replacement therapy. |
| 9) Strandhagen E. (2000) | The Study Of Men Born In 1913. | 730 men aged 54.
(Sweden) | 26
(1967-1993) | 121 | Cancer death | Vegetables (not defined) | No significant association was found for men in the highest vs lowest quartile of consumption (6-7 vs 0-1 times/wk) (No data shown). | No data shown. |
| 5) Sahyoun NR. (1996) | No cohort name. | 725 subjects (254 men, and 471 women) aged 60-101 from Massachusetts.
(USA) | 9-12
(1981-84 to 1993) | 57? | Cancer mortality | All vegetables (not defined) | RR = 0.80 (0.36-1.76; P = 0.82) for the highest vs lowest tertile of consumption.
Amount specific data (tertiles. No amounts defined):
T1: RR = 1.
T2: RR = 0.73 (0.38-1.39).
T3: RR = 0.80 (0.36-1.76). | Age, sex, disease status, and disabilities affecting shopping. |
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